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«“√ “√ √“™∫— ≥±‘ µ¬ ∂“π ªï ∑’Ë Û ©∫— ∫∑’Ë Ò ¡.§.-¡’ .§. ÚıÙ¯ 133 Sid Terason Lazarsfeld, a sociologist, studiedvoting decisions and found that interpersonal contact was more powerful than mass media in influencing voting decisions. In 1959, Berelson, a University of Chicago social scientist, was dismayed at the state of communica- tion research, having observed a decline in scholars publishing their research. In fact, a scholar like Schramm contributed to the field in a number of ways by adding com- munication to the rank of the five other social sciences; namely, psy- chology, sociology, political science, economics, and anthropology, thereby elevating communication to an equal status. Also, in 1943, Schramm founded the first doctoral program in mass communication at University of Iowa. Three years later, he estab- lished theBureauofAudienceResearch, patterned after Lazarsfeld’s Bureau ofApplied Social Research at Colum- bia. Schrammwas therefore regarded as pioneer in the empirical study of communication. The rhetorical arts and behavioral sciences were for the first time blended together as were interpersonal and mass communica- tion studies by Schramm and his students. From that point forward, Schramm’s work essentially pushed the study of speech into adopting a scientific approach. Empiricism (1950 - 1970) In the 1950s, social science scholars, equipped with skepticism, challenged scientifically the ancient rhetorical principles that claimed persuasive discourse derived from ethic and logic; in other words, an ethical speaker with a logical argument. For instance, according to Aristotle, ethos constituted a speaker’s intelligence, character, and goodwill toward the audience, but empirical studies revealed goodwill was part of character. In 1950 International Com- munication Association (ICA) was founded in opposition to the humani- ties-based Speech Association of America (SAA). Their mission was to conduct science-based research different from the textual analysis done by rhetoricians. Berlo (1960) in his famous textbook, Process of Communication : An Introduction to Theory and Practice, reduced Shannon & Weaver’s model to con- stitute four components: Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver. The SMCR model presented a new way to look at the communication process. The researchers continued to gather ideas and world views from other disciplines, especially social psychology. In 1969, the SAAchanged its name to the Speech Communica- tion Association (SCA). This new name underscored the attempted dominance of the scientific approach towards the speech discipline. Since the early 1960s, speech departments started to adopt the term communica- tion in their title. Interpersonal Communication (1960 - 1970) The Sixties was a time of great social and political upheaval in the US, ranging from domestic riots to an overseas war, and from sexual revolution to drug experimentation, a generation influenced by the Beatles and the Beat. 2 The unrest throughout the country was reflected in depart- ments of speech and communication. Humanist scholars were disturbed by the nonverbal, non-artistic methods used by demonstrators. The focus of study in speech and communication was shifted frommass communication to interpersonal communication. In the early 1960s, speech study focused on interpretation, argumen- tation, persuasion, message organiza- tion, public address, etc. By 1970, public speaking was replaced by interpersonal communication as a required course. Speech teachers no longer taught public speaking but turned to dyadic interactions, trust building, self-disclosure, nonverbal communication, conflict resolution, and other interpersonal issues and as well as sensitivity training or humanistic psychology. According to Griffin (2002), society sanctioned individualism, and ignored corporate responsibility or conscious attempts to change other people’s behavior. Scholars valued relationships more than message 2 The unconventional movement that stressed nonconformity to social and cultural mores in the 50s. The groupwas essentially represented by Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, William Burroughs, and Neal Cassady.